Dairy Cow is mainly raised for milk production. The commercial
production of dairy cow in Thailand began after the establishment
of the dairy farm and herd training centre granted by the Danish
Government in 1962. Dairy production was then developed through the
subsequent establishment of the Dairy Farming Promotion
Organization of Thailand, a state-own enterprise under the Ministry
of Agriculture and Cooperatives in 1971. Ready-to-consume milk
consumption took off in the mid-1970s reaching 40,000 tons in 1984
(de Leeuw et al., 1999) and 609,000 tons in 2001. Local fresh milk
deliveries followed the same trend. Fresh milk was produced by
about 150 dairy farmers in 1971, increasing in 2001 with a total of
343,679 cows supplying 528,000 tons, while domestic consumption
outpaced production to top 1.2 million tons. Of the total
consumption, about 609,000 tons, or 50.8%, is used in the
production of ready-to-drink milk. In 2002, the government plans to
impose more stringent regulations on the quality of
ready-to-consume milk products, thereby having a positive effect on
the local dairy cow raising.
Practically 95 to 99 % of dairy farms in Thailand can be
classified as small scale or smallhoder farm under mixed
crop-livestock farming systems (Wanapat,1995; Chantalakhana and
Skunmum, 2002). Dairy operation is generally integrated with rice,
sugar-cane , cassava (Wanapat ,1995 ), orchards, or some plantation
crops (Chantalakhana and Skunmum, 2002).
Practically, all dairy cows in Thailand are crossbreds
Holstein-Friesian (HF), most of them produce around 2,500 to
3,000 kg milk /cow/yr .The number of cows ranged from 6 to 30
heads/farm (Chantalakhana and Skunmum, 2002).
The use of crop residues such as rice straw, brocken rice is
very common. However, large variations in rainfall and soil
fertility, and the long dry season, reduce the availability and
quality of feed resource. This adversely affects the productivity
of dairy cattle (Wanapat, 1995). Concentrate feeding were at
averaged 5-6 kg/d for lactating cow and 2 kg for dry cows. Feed
costs were about 70% of total operating costs, the largest being
expenditure on concentrates ( 65- 80 %) resulting in increasing of
production cost while availability of funds from various agencies
is at present relatively limited for smallholder farmers (Wanapat,
1995). So further research development should be undertaken in the
areas of animal nutrition and feeding of locally avaiable resources
and forage crops in order to alleviate low productivity and
increase efficiency.
It has been observed that milk from rural smallholder dairy farm is totally for sale and not being used for home consumption. It has also been observed that rural farmers rarely consume beef or pork from their own production. Fish is a more common source of protein for rural people, and chickens and eggs are less common. (Chantalakhana and Skunmum, 2002). The nutritional health care are provided to community level.
Voluntary dry intake (VDMI) is fundamentally important in
nutrition because it establishes the amount of nutrients available
to an animal for health and production. Underfeeding of nutrients
restricts production and can affect the health of an animal,
overfeeding of nutrients increases feed costs, can result in
excessive excretion of nutrients into the environment, and at
excessively high amounts could be toxic or cause adverse health
effects. Many factors affect VDMI namely the appetite of the
animal which varies according to the animal itself (age,
physiological stage, former nutritional status,etc.) (NRC, 2001),
the environmental conditions (temperature, humidity, etc.) under
which the animal is kept( Holter and Urban, 1992; Holter et al.,
1997), the specific characteristics of the feed which would limit
ruminant feed intake, (NRC, 2001), NDF(Allen, 2000), fat and
energy ( Mertens, 1987; NRC, 1989; Smith et al., 1993), CP (Allen,
2000 ) or forage to concentrate ratio (Llamas-Lamas and Cambs,
1991; NRC, 2001).
The voluntary intake of feed depends essentially on the rate of
degradation of digestible matter of feed into particles of a size
small enough to enable their passage from the reticulo-rumen to the
lower gut. Feeds low in digestibility are thought to place
constraints on VDMI because of their slow clearance from the rumen
and passage through the digestive tract. The reticulorumen and
possibly the abomasum have stretch and touch receptors in their
walls that negatively impact VDMI as the weight and volume of
digesta accumlated (Allen, 1996). The neutral-detergent fiber (NDF)
fraction, because of generally low rates of digestion, is
considered the primary dietary constituent associated with the fill
effect. It was thought that generally, cows would consume about
1.2% of their body weight per day as NDF ( Merck,1991).The result
in Paper II showed that DM intake (DMI) were slightly lower than
typical intake levels for lactating dairy cows of varying body
weights as given by NRC (1989), it could be due to effect of
limitation in NDF intake which was achieved to maximum level of 1.2
%NDF intake.Allen (2000) summarized 15 studies and showed a general
decline in DMI with increasing NDF concentrations in diets when
diets exceeded 25 % NDF.
The CP content of feed is one of many factors on VDMI (Allen,
2000), increasing CP content of the diets which can increase DMI of
lactating cows, particularly when the CP content of diets was low.
Oldham (1984) and Roffler et al. (1986) noted that the mechanism
involved was presumably a reduction in distension as fiber and DM
digestibility increased.This was also found in Paper II. The
results showed that DMI and DM digestibility tended to linearly
increase with increasing dietary CP.
Feeding roughage with low digestibility resulted in slower rate
of passage out of the rumen, thus restricting the feed intake
(Leng, 1990). Physical form is one of the limitations of bulk feeds
on intake, but it may be overcome by mechanical treatment. Jaster
and Murphy (1983) found that the intake of hay by dairy heifers
increased when it was chopped as compared to long hay. In
ruminants, when forages are chopped or ground there is usually an
increase in voluntary feed intake (Osafo et al., 1997). Rice straw
with low digestibility was used as a roughage in Paper II and
chopped, the reason was to improving the VDMI. However, the balance
of nutrients for the rumen organisms and the ratio of protein to
energy in nutrients that become available to the animal are the
major factors.
Recent research(Morrison et al.,2001) is indicating that feed
intake regulation is possibly, and mainly controlled through the
release of leptin from fat cells that is stimulated by excessively
low levels of energy nutrients absorbed relative to amino acids.
The reports demonstrate that leptin is an important regulator of
the hypothalamic, neuroendocrine, and endocrine processes
regulating appetite (Campfield et al.,1995, Halaas et al.,1995,
Pelleymounter et al., 1995).
For digestibilty, there are several factors limiting coplete
digestion. The most important factor is chemistry of feed, which
related to microbial activity espectially in roughage.There is a
decrease in the proportion of CP and increase in the concentration
of cellulose, hemicelluloses and lignin, which are normally
associated with a depression in DM digestibility. The cell wall
content and the magnitude and nature of lignification of these cell
walls are amongst the most important factors which govern the
degradability and the rate of passage of a forage.This was also
found in Paper I. The result showed that palm seed meal is low in
protein and high in neutral detergent fiber (NDF), which was
lowest in DM and CP digestibility. Good microbial activity will
require adequate nutrition of the rumen microorganisms (Leng,
1999), energy in the form of ATP released from soluble and
structural carbohydrates of the plant, nitrogen in the form of
ammonia generated by the hydrolysis of the fermentable nitrogen,
minerals and vitamins, good chemical and physico-chemical rumen
environment (pH) and a regular outflow from the rumen. These
conditions are not only dependent on the properties of the feeds
but also on their rationing (number and frequency of meals,
physical form of their presentation). Perdok and Leng (1989) showed
that higher level of rumen NH3-N (15-30 mg%) improved
digestibility.In Paper I. it was found that all protein sources
were high in rumen degradable DM and CP in cows fed with
urea-treated than untreated rice straw. Rice straw is low in
protein and when fed as a main roughage, ruminal ammonia
concentration would be low for most rumen microorganisms resulting
in low degradability.
Ruminants are extremely well adapted to cool environments but
appear to have poor adaptation to hot conditions (Blaxter, 1962). A
number of studies have demonstrated that animals selected
for short shiny hair-coats consistently out-produce
similar breeds with rough-hairy coats. This may be related to a low
density of sweat glands. As animals progress from cold to hot
conditions their needs for protein relative to fat or fatty acid
under cold conditions the requirements for oxidisable substrate
such as fat and short chain volatile fatty acids is increased
totally and relative to the requirements for amino acids
for tissue synthesis i.e. the P/E ratio in the nutrients required
by the animal is decreased. precursors change as follows:-
under hot humid conditions the need for oxidisable substrate for
heat production may be close to zero and the P/E ratio in the
nutrients required by the animal is increased although total
nutrient requirements may be decreased. Animals at the upper level
of their ability to control their body temperature in a hot
environment, may be heat stressed by the extra heat produced in an
inefficient rumen microbial ecosystem or where acetate burn-off is
required because of the imbalanced nature of the nutrients absorbed
(Leng et al 1993). Heat stress in ruminants, which is indicated by
excessive respiration rates in general reduce feed intake. This in
turn would reduce the heat increment associated with fermentative
digestion and also the heat released in fertile cycles of
metabolism or in synthesis (of milk or tissue). In general on a
poor quality roughage diet if the rumen of an animal in a hot/humid
environment is deficient, in say fermentable N and/or sulphur
and/or phosphorus then this will:- 1) reduce digestibility - by as
much as 5 to 10 units. 2) Reduce efficiency of microbial cell
growth per unit of organic matter digested and therefore lower P/E
ratio in the nutrients absorbed. 3) Reduce feed intake both because
of the lower digestibility and also because the extra heat from the
rumen and the animal. One factor was effect on feed intake and
digestibility in Paper II , It was due to Climate
influence.
Recommendations for the crude protein concentration in dairy cow
rations vary from 12% for a dry cow to 18% for a cow in early
lactation (NRC,1989). The goals of ruminant protein nutrition are
to provide adequate amounts of rumen-degradable protein (RDP) for
optimal ruminal efficiency and to obtain the desired animal
productivity with a minimum amount of dietary CP. Optimizing the
efficiency of use of dietary CP requires selection of complementary
feed proteins and NPN supplements that will provide the types and
amounts of RDP that will meet, but not exceed, the N needs of
ruminal microorganisms for maximal synthesis of microbial protein
(NRC, 2001). For the ration of experimental feeds in Paper II. it
contained CP of 10.5 - 14.4 % of DM, this level fitted with
requirements for maintenance and production in cow 450 kg of body
weight, milk yield and fat at 10-15 kg/d and 3.5 %, respectively
(NRC, 1989).
The mechanism of ruminal protein degradation has been reviewed
( Jouany and Ushida,1999; Wallace et al., 1999). Numerous factors
affect the amount of CP in feeds that will be degraded in the
rumen. The chemistry of feed CP is the single most important
factor(NRC, 2001). The two most important considerations of feed CP
chemistry are: (1) the proportional concentrations of NPN and true
protein, and (2) the physical and chemical characteristics of the
proteins that comprise the true protein fraction of the feedstuff.
Non-protein N compounds are degraded so quickly in the rumen
(>300%/h) that degradation is assumed to be 100 percent (Sniffen
et al., 1992). However, this is not an entirely correct assumption
because degradability is truly related to rate of passage (NRC,
2001). Highest amount of effective CP degradability of LLM, in
Paper I, it could be due to leucaena leaf meal (LLM) containing
highest level of rapidly soluble fraction 'a'. As reported by NRC
(2001) that grasses and legume forages (hay or silage) contained
the higest concentration of non-protein N compounds especially in
hay.
Differences in 3-dimensional structure and chemical bonding
(i.e., cross-links) that occur both within and between protein
molecules and between proteins and carbohydrates are functions of
source as well as processing. These aspects of structure affect
microbial access to the proteins, which apparently is the most
important factor affecting the rate and extent of degradation of
proteins in the rumen.Proteins that possess extensive
cross-linking, such as the disulfide bonding in albumins and
immunoglobulins or cross-links caused by chemical or heat
treatment, are less accessible to proteolytic enzymes and are
degraded more slowly ( Mahadevan et al., 1980). High level of
undegradable protein of cottonseed meal was reported in Paper I,
possible factors could be due to heat processing during
extraction and its cross-links.
The protein meal contains tannins (2-4%) which binds to make an
insoluble tannin - protein complex (Barry, 1985). It is not
degraded in the rumen but degraded in the abomasum and small
intestine. This was also found in cassava hay with contained
condensed tannins( Wanapat, 2001) in Paper I, the results was found
that rumen protein degradability was lower in cassava
hay.
When a relatively soluble protein meal is fed in very high quantities and is either in a finely ground form or is rapidly fragmented into small particles which move quickly through the rumen (Noland and Leng, 1989). Other factors affecting the ruminal degradability of feed protein include ruminal retention time of the protein, microbial proteolytic activity and ruminal pH. The effect of these factors on the kinetics of ruminal protein degradation have been reviewed ( NRC,1985).
NRC (2001) stated that a constant intestinal digestion of feed
proteins value of 80 percent was used for RUP of all feedstuffs.
This value was selected because it approximated the average
calculated true absorption of both non-ammonia N and RUP as
measured in vivo. In Paper I, the result of intestinal
digestibility in six protein resources expressed in % of rumen
residual portion were varied from 78.7 % for PSM to 96.2 % for
SBM. However, other feeding standards have attempted to account
for differences in RUP digestibility among feedstuffs
(Webster,1987). It is assumed (Webster,1987) that acid-detergent
insoluble nitrogen (ADIN) is both undegradable in the rumen and
indigestible in the small intestine. The result of difference value
of intestinal digestion among feed proteins in Paper I , may be
due to differences in ADIN contents among feedstuffs.
Feed proteins are degraded by microorganisms in the rumen via
amino acids into ammonia and branched chain fatty acids.
Non-protein nitrogen from the feed and the urea recycled into the
rumen through the saliva or the rumen wall contribute also to the
pool of ammonia in the rumen. If ammonia levels in the rumen are
too low causes bacteria to grow inefficiently producing a low ratio
of absorbed amino acids to volatile fatty acid energy.
Digestibility is also reduced by the reduction in pool size of
cellulolytic bacteria that occurs when bacteria grow
inefficiently.
Too much ammonia (due to excessive intakes of dietary CP ) in
the rumen leads to wastage and ammonia toxicity. Excessive ammonia
will be absorbed cross the ruminal wall and is transported to the
liver. The liver converts the ammonia to urea which is released in
the blood. Urea in the blood can follow two routes: 1) It can
return to the rumen through the saliva or through the rumen wall.
2) It can be excreted into the urine by the kidneys. Excessive
intakes of dietary CP can be monitored by either blood urea
nitrogen (BUN) or by milk urea nitrogen (MUN). In recent years,
studies on mechanisms behind urea formation from dietary protein
was found that the concentration of urea nitrogen in blood is
directly related to ruminal ammonia absorption (Hammond, 1983), and
MUN is also closely correlated with BUN and dietary CP (Roseler et
al., 1993; Baker et al., 1995; Butler et al., 1996 ). Relationship
of those were also found in Paper II.
Recently, Abeni et al.(2000) reported that BUN concentrations
were more related to dietary CP to energy ratio of diets. Feeding
nitrogen in excess of requirements, feeding excessive amounts of
ruminally degradable protein, or feeding diets not properly
balanced for ruminally degradable and undegradable protein, amino
acid, or energy may increase nitrogen excretion in feces or urine
(urine nitrogen,UN) (Kauffman and St-Pierre, 2001). Hammond ( 1983)
stated that when energy intake was held constant, increasing
dietary protein would increase BUN concentrations.
Since MUN is closely correlated with BUN and UN (Jonker et al.,
1998; Kauffman and St-Pierre, 2001), therefore, in healthy
ruminants, BUN and MUN concentrations are used to be indicative of
the protein to energy ratio in the diet (crude protein :digestible
organic matter, CP: DOM ratio). Optimum MUN concentration for
individual cows ranges from 8 to 25 mg%, while optimum MUN
concentration for a herd ranges from 12 to 17 mg/dl (Roseler et
al., 1993; Baker et al., 1995;Hwang et al., 2000), while BUN is at
15 mg% (Roseler et al., 1993). However, the fact that MUN is more
representative over time of ruminal ammonia levels, less invasive
to the animal, and less variable, most researchers would rather
analyze for MUN concentrations. BUN and MUN are lower than this
reference and could be due to the insufficiency in CP per unit of
energy, On the other hand higher value could be due to excess in CP
per unit of energy or low rumen degradable nonfiber carbohydrates.
In Paper II , the results were found that dietary CP at 12.5 and
13.7 % of DM resulted in lower range of BUN, MUN. Milk yield was
corresponding when dietary CP level increased from 10.5 to 14.4 %
and the highest increase (0.82 kg/d) was from 10.5 to 12.5 %,
respectively.
Overall, milk yield increased quadratically as dietary CP
concentrations increased (NRC, 2001). The regression equation
obtained was:
Milk yield = 0.8* DMI + 2.3 * CP-0.05* CP2- 9.8
(R2 = 0.29)
where milk yield and dry matter intake (DMI) are kilograms/d and
CP is percent of diet DM. Assuming a fixed DMI (there was no
correlation between intake and CP percent in this data set), the
maximum milk production was obtained at 23 % CP. From the result in
Paper II, it was found that milk yield responsed on increasing
dietary CP and tended to linearly increase as level of CP in the
diet increased from 10.5 to 14.7 % of DM. Milk yeild was increased
from 10.7 to 11.6 kg/h/d, this was lower than expected by the
equation above. Milk production could be limited by the
physiological state, genetic potential of the cow or by other
nutrients than protein alone. Leng (1999) reviewed that an optimal
balance between aminogenic, glucogenic as well as lipogenic
nutrients is required for maximal efficiency of milk production and
prevention of ketosis particularly in highly productive dairy cows.
Recently, a regression equation for milk yield with CP in
terms of rumen degradable protein (RDP) and rumen undegradable
protein ( RUP) ( both as percent of DM) were calculated using the
model described in NRC (2001):
Milk yield = 55.61+ 1.15 * DMI + 8.79 * RDP - 0.36*
RDP2 + 1.85 * RUP ( r2= 0.52
)
where DMI and milk yield are kilograms/day, and RDP and RUP are
percent of diet DM. So, milk responsed on CP, not to depend only on
amount of CP but also on partition of RDP and RUP.
Cottonseed feed products have been used for feeding of livestock
for many years. Cottonseed meal, cottonseed hulls and whole
cottonseed meal are natural sources of protein, fiber and energy.
Cottonseed meal is the most abundant plant protein feed available
in Thailand. Cottonseed hulls are a valuable source of roughage for
ruminant and fiber for monogastric rations. Whole and delinted
cottonseed are concentrated sources of protein and energy in
ruminant rations.
Cottonseed meal is one of two by-products produced when oil is
extracted from whole cottonseed. Cottonseed oil can be extracted by
using a solvent or a mechanical process. The nutrient content of
cottonseed meal varied depending on the process used to extract the
oil. The major effect of extraction process on cottonseed meal is
on fat content. The meal used in this study was generated using a
mechanical extraction process and was guaranteed to have at least
40 % crude protein (Paper I ). Crude protein contents of 41 or 44 %
are standard in the reference books for cottonseed meal(NRC, 2001)
but with changes that have occurred in the extraction processes,
less protein is being left in the meal. Cottonseed meal is an
excellent protein supplement for cattle. The limitations on
effective utilization of this product in rations for swine and
poultry are of minor significance for ruminant animals. Cottonseed
meal has a relatively low rumen degradability and is therefore a
good source of by-pass protein and especially useful in rations for
milking cows (Gohl,1998). In comparison with SBM, CSM has a higher
concentration of RUP and is beneficial because it supplies more
total AA for absorption in the small intestine (Clark et al.,1987.)
Typical parameter estimates of CP disappearance of cottonseed
meal from nylon bag, digestibility at intestinal and total tract
are reviewed in the Table 1.
Rumen undregradable protien that shown in Table was ranking from
31.9 to 57.3 % of DM , it was due to difference situation and
varities of CSM that effect on nutritive value of CSM.
Cottonseed meal can be used to replace soybean meal ,resulting
in similar milk production and composition (Blackwelder et
al.,1998).The result from Paper II, cottonseed meal can completely
replace soybean meal with similar milk production. While, feed cost
was decreased when cottonseed meal completely replaced soybean
meal. However , the results from Paper I and report by NRC (2001)
that cottonseed meal is an available supplemental protein source
that is slightly lower in crude protein than soybean meal, but is
higher in rumen undegradable protein. However, it is also higher in
acid-detergent fiber and lignin as compared to soybean
meal.Cottonseed meal (CSM) contains less available protein and
energy than either peanut meal or soybean meal. This is especially
true for the available protein component and for this reason
rations containing cottonseed meal need to contain a little more
protein (one to two percent) to be equal to rations containing
soybean or peanut meal. In general, however, CSM is typically a
very useful, cost-effective feed ingredient. However, cottonseed
products, especially whole cottonseed, contain a toxic pigment
called gossypol in the glands of the seeds.
Gossypol is a normal existing pigment compound in cottonseed which can at high levels, have a negative effect on livestock performance, especially those of monogastrics. Gossypol is in two forms: free (hazardous) and bound (total-free gossypol; less hazardous). Free gossypol binds cell constituents and iron, damaging the heart and leading to secondary liver damage and fluid accumulation in body cavities. Some cautions are suggested when using both cottonseed meal and whole cottonseed in dairy rations for high producing cows because of the presence of gossypol, which can be toxic at high levels of intake. However, most gossypol is removed during processing of the seeds. Processing of cottonseed will have a significant impact on the concentration of free gossypol. Cottonseed meal pressed with heat and moisture is less hazardous than other forms of cottonseed. Lindsey et al. (1980) reported that the average of free gossypol contents of the CSM were 0.225 and 0.061 % in solvent and mechanical extraction process, respectively. Ruminants especially in mature animals are able to tolerate higher levels of gossypol due to partial detoxification by the rumen fermentation. However, care should be taken that daily intake does not exceed 1000 parts per million (0.1 %) in diet dry matter (Merk, 1991). It means that cow 500 kg of body weight (DMI = 3 % of body weight) should consume no more than 15 grams of free gossypol per day. In Paper II cottonseed meal intake in dietary treatment 4 with high level of cottonseed meal at 2.21 kg/h/d. It means that free gossypol intake was 1.35 g/h/d. Lindsey et al. (1980) fed diets containing 45% CSM, resulting in an intake of 10.1 kg/h/d of CSM and found no effect on gossypol toxicity.
Based on the results in this thesis the following points can be
made:
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|
Table 1. Typical parameter estimates of degradable,
undegradable,(both assuming rate of passage of 0.05/h-1),
intestinal (% of rumen undegradable protein) and total tract (% of
original feed) digestibility of CP in cottonseed meal
|
|||||||||||
|
Item |
DePeters and Bath (1986) |
Grings et al. (1991) |
Pate et al. (1995) |
Brown and Pate(1997) |
NRC (2001) |
Paper I. Ureatreated1 |
Paper I. Untreated2 |
||||
|
a3/. |
22.1 |
20.0 |
15.9 |
19.0 |
25.6 |
28.0 |
31.0 |
||||
|
b |
66.5 |
58.2 |
74.0 |
79.5 |
55.5 |
48.9 |
40.5 |
||||
|
c |
0.080 |
0.032 |
0.120 |
0.072 |
0.068 |
0.058 |
0.043 |
||||
|
Effective degradability, % |
63.0 |
42.7 |
68.1 |
66.0 |
57.6 |
54.6 |
49.6 |
||||
|
Effective Undegradability, % |
37.0 |
57.3 |
31.9 |
34.0 |
42.4 |
45.4 |
50.4 |
||||
|
Intestinal digestibility, % |
- |
83.0 |
- |
- |
92.0 |
88.2 |
88.1 |
||||
|
Total tract digestibility, % |
- |
90.3 |
- |
- |
95.4 |
94.6 |
94.0 |
||||
|
1 Result from Paper I in cow fed with urea treated
rice straw |
|||||||||||
|
2 Result from Paper I in cow fed with untreated rice
straw |
|||||||||||
|
3 a=rapidly solubilized CP fraction (% of tatal CP),
b= CP fraction potentially degradable in the rumen (% of tatal CP),
c = rate constant for degradation of b fraction (% of of tatal CP
h-1 ). |
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